– S. Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi

Attitude in regard to Callings and Professions

As already stated most of the lower castes of Indian Muslims have been associated and identified with the specific trades or callings in which they have been engaged but there has never been any restriction on changing one’s occupation. An occupation generally regarded as belonging to a lower caste, as, for example, the profession of a Darzi (tailor) or a Dhobi (laundryman) is often adopted by a person belonging to a higher caste without any effect on his caste status. In fact, the Muslims have never accepted the occupations as permanent and unchangeable professions of the particular castes, nor, the division of labour depending on ‘caste’ in the form of social classes, as recognised by the Indo-Iranian people. Nor has the caste system among Indian Muslims ever discouraged the people belonging to a lower social unit or engaged in any one of the lower caste trades or callings to adopt a respectable profession like the teaching of religious sciences or acting as Imams and preachers (khatibs). In fact, Islam does not look down upon any lawful profession with disrespect. In other predominantly Muslim countries, particularly in Arab lands, Mecca and Madina, several respected doctors of religion have surnames indicating the occupation of their forefathers. These occupational surnames are neither held in contempt by anybody nor the persons using them feel ashamed of because of those appellations.

There is no denying the fact that the Indian Muslims have gradually absorbed numerous traits from their Hindu neighbours including their caste system but the rigour of social discrimination implied in the system was softened to a large extent by the egalitarian principles of Islam. The reason for this apparent complexity of social attitude of the Indian Muslims can be traced to the segregating influence of the institution of Indian caste system and the air of superiority produced by the feudal system, on the one hand, and the uncompromising teachings of Islam declaring that the whole mankind is the progeny of Adam, that honour in the sight of God depends on the awe of God and that no Arab has a preference over a non-Arab nor a non-Arab over an Arab.

Dress of the Indian Muslims

The gradual process of Indianisation of the Muslims did not manifest itself only in the assimilation of the cultural and social traits of their neighbours and its flowering in new forms of social relationships, but it also evolved new raiment and costumes in unison with their taste and suitable to the local climatic conditions. By and large, their dress is the legacy of Indo-Islamic culture which was developed and refined by the end of the Moghul rule in India and reached its apex in the cultural centres of Delhi, Lucknow and Hyderabad where the Hindu nobility had also adopted the Muslim dress. There is no appreciable difference in the dress of Muslim nobility whether living in the northern regions or in the southern states of the country, nor the dress of the Muslims of the upper crust and middle classes shows any marked variation. It consists of the trousers of different shapes like pyjamas, shalwars and ghararas with a shirt (including kurta) and a long coat called sherwani, which is an improved form of the achkans and angarkhas worn earlier. The caps donned are of different shapes. Those more prevalent in Oudh and Bihar are do-pallis. Other popular head-dresses among Muslims include a cap made of velvet and known as Rampuri cap, and another boat-shaped cap called Gandhi or Ajmal cap. The latter is commonly worn by the Hindus too. Turbans or pagrees are now falling into disuse even among the Ulema, religious teachers, but these can still be seen at certain places worn by the bridegrooms during marriage ceremonies. Lungi is also commonly worn in certain places for the convenience of working at home or in the fields, but its size and shape as well as the way it is put on differs from dhoti generally worn by the Hindus. In certain rural areas, however, dhoti is the common dress of the Hindus as well as the Muslims.

The Muslim Dwellings

The increasing impact of the western mode of living as well as emphasis on town planning in recent years is tending to obliterate the differences in the design of Muslim dwellings and the style of houses built by other communities. The houses now built with the approval of town planning and municipal authorities are, by and large, of the same type meant for renting them out to the tenets who abound in cities. However, the residential structures built earlier by the Muslims were almost always well-ventilated and spacious with a wide court but the inside view was secluded from the outside. Two other features of these houses were that the lavatories were always constructed in a way that one did not have to face the qibla while excreting or urinating. The Muslims are forbidden to sit facing the Ka‘aba while answering the call of natures and hence this precaution had to be taken in every Muslim country in the construction of houses. The Indian Muslim houses also had bath-rooms secluded from the public view and had a raised platform for keeping the buckets in order to comply with the rules of ritual purification.

Decoration of Houses

If you enter the house of an Average Indian Muslim, you would invariably find copies of the Holy Qur’an in different sizes kept in a niche wrapped in cloth coverings. In certain families every member, young or old, daily recites the sacred scripture early in the morning. Decoration of the houses with pictures of animate objects having been prohibited by Islam, wall-texts having Quranic verses or a few lines by some well-known poet written in a flowery pattern can be seen overhanging the walls in almost every middle- class house. In certain modernised households, now-a-days, who have shaken off the grip of religion, pictures have found their way as decorative pieces.

Arrangements for Offering Prayers

In almost every house one would find prayer-mats or a sheet of cloth set apart for offering prayers. Women, who are normally more religious-minded everywhere, perform the prayers regularly in the privacy of their houses. The male members of the family usually perform their prayers in the mosque but some of them have to offer it up in the house owing to illness or some other inability. For such occasions as well as for the guests who might prefer to perform the service alone, a small wooden prayer-bench is also available in every house along with the prayer-mat. Everyone in the house, young or old, is fully aware of the direction of qibla and also abides by the precautionary measures meant for showing due deference to the Ka‘aba, the Holy of the Holies. In certain sophisticated families a separate Iota or jug is set apart for performing ablutions. It would not be out of place to mention here that the lota or the jug with a beak shaped pipe attached to it is in common use among the Muslims for a long time. It ensures economical use of water and, being of a bit bigger size, is very convenient for performing ablutions.

Position of Women in Muslim Society

The position of women in Muslim society has always been a far more respected and happier one, than their sisters elsewhere. Upon her falls the duty of managing the household, of cooking choice and making purchases of provisions; she holds the honour and good name of her husband in the hallow of her hand and enjoys many legal rights conferred on her by the Shariah or religious law of Islam. As mistress of the house, she has also to look after the upbringing of the children and their education and manners. In most of the well-to-do houses normally an old lady is engaged for religious education, specially the teaching of the Qur’an, to the children of tender age. Children from the neighbouring houses are also encouraged to receive free education from such tutors. At certain places educated middle-class house-wives teach the Qur’an to the girls of their neighbours without charging any fee for it. These informal schools are also a means of imparting training in sewing and embroidery and cooking to the neighbouring girls.

Respect for Age

Old age among the Muslims is not something to be despised or denigrated. On the contrary, it claims highest esteem and reverence, as a mark of respect for maturity in wisdom, and makes one entitled to greater love and care by the younger members of the family. Anybody visiting a Muslim house would not unoften come across an old man— and he may be a distant relative or the Imam of the local mosque—sitting on a prayer-mat engaged in the recollection of God. He would see the members of the family making obeisance to him, saluting him in the morning and desirous of his blessings. No servant or child or an elder member of the family can show disrespect to him. Everybody deems it an honour to serve him, bring the food for him and do whatever he is bidden.

The same regard is paid if there is any old lady in the family. These grandams usually pass their time in prayers and recollection of God, invoking Divine blessings for the women and children of the family and the neighbourhood who regularly pay a visit to them for that purpose. The blessings by such old ladies are considered efficacious for warding off evil. Whether such a lady is a blood relation or not, she is affectionately called grandma or aunty.

Re-marriage of Widows

The re-marriage of the widows is neither looked down upon by Islam nor has it ever been held in contempt by any custom or usage of the Muslim peoples. The Prophet of Islam himself contracted marriages with the widows and so did the pious and learned doctors of faith, kings and grandees in the bygone ages. There being no inhibition, whatsoever, in this regard, the widows of respectable and noble families were given in marriage for the second time by their own guardians, fathers and brothers. Several such examples of Moghul princes can be cited who had been   re-married after widowhood and who continued to receive the same respect by the kings and relatives as well as by the then society. It seems (as related by Khafi Khan) that during the reign of Muhammad Shah (1719-48) the then nobility began to treat the remarriage of the widows with contemptuous disrespect. They began to view the second marriage as an affront to the family honour and as an act against the fidelity of the widows towards their late husbands. Anyone who dared to get his widowed sister or daughter re-married was not only sneered at but had also to face a social boycott by his friends and relatives. The re-married widow and her husband had sometimes even to migrate from the place. This custom had so deeply rooted itself in the Indian Muslim society that Sayed Ahmad Shaheed Barelvi, the renowned reformer and religious leader of the nineteenth century, had to launch a movement against the custom. He and his followers had to fight this innovation relentlessly. For the purpose they had even to set personal examples before the practice of re-marrying the widows was revived. It was owing to his indefatigable efforts that the widow re-marriage is no longer held in contempt among Indian Muslims as it was a century or two earlier. Although some of the widows still do not marry for various reasons quite a large percentage of them is now re-married.

The Muslim Greetings

Among the Muslims all over the world the customary, greeting, as also required by their religion too, is assalam-u-alaikum (peace be upon you) with the reply walaikumussalam (on you too be peace). In certain towns, particularly those of Oudh, one is greeted by adabarz (l pay my respects to you). This is also accompanied by the youngers bowing down before their elders as a mark of respect for them. In some places like Hyderabad, this particular way of salutation is repeated three or four times. This over-sophisticated way of salutation, known as farshi salaam, is replied by tasleem, or an expression of the wish to live long. The greetings are also followed by a handshake sometimes with both hands. On the occasion of ‘lds or when a close friend or relation has come back from a journey the congratulatory greeting is normally a prelude to a warm embrace.

Remembrance of God

Throughout his life the name of God is constantly on the lips of a Muslim, whether learned or illiterate, young or old. Words and phrases praising God have so become part and parcel of his daily conversation that one is constantly reminded of the omnipotence, over lordship, bounty and munificence of God Almighty at every turn and pass. Some of these recurrent phrases commonly repeated on different occasions are:

Alhamdu lillah (Praise be to God) to express gratitude or return thanks for kindness.

Masha Allah (with the will and mercy of God) on the occasion of happiness or to congratulate others.

Insha Allah (Except if Allah Wills) while making a promise or expressing the intention to do something in future.

Inna lillah wa inna ilaih-i-raje‘oon (We all belong to Allah and unto Him shall we return) to express resignation when one has sustained a loss.

Lahaula Wala Quwata illa billah (There is no might nor majesty except in God) to express resentment or indignation.

Subhan Allah (Glory be to God) to express astonishment at some strange sight.

Bism lllah (In the name of God) is said before one begins to take food, and then finishes it with Alhamdulillah. Similarly, in order to excuse oneself from accepting an invitation one says: Barak Allah (God may bless you).

Anybody who sneezes says: Alhamdulillah (Praise be to God) and gets the reply: Yarhamuka Allah (God may have mercy on you). He has then to return the invocation by the phrase: Yahdikum ullah wa yusleh lakum (May God guide you on the right path and help you).

Rules of Common Courtesy

Whenever someone pays a visit to a middle class Muslim household he is usually felicitated with betel-leaves. Offering of a betel to the guests is an old Indian custom which had been adopted by the Indian Muslims as early as the fourteenth century. The custom, prevalent in the monasteries of the Muslim saints and sufis, finds a mention in the records of their discourses and biographies. Although the custom of offering betels to guests is followed almost all over India, it Is more widespread in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Daccen. Oudh, in Uttar Pradesh, being more sophisticated has develöped different ways of preparing the betel-leaves, as, for instance, their flowery display in a saucer, before these are presented to the guests. Small betel-boxes with fine metalwork on them and cloth pouches with exquisite embroidery demonstrate the interest as well as the refined taste of the people. Tobacco is also taken with the betels. It is prepared in numerous ways to give it varying flavours, taste and agreeable fragrance. Lucknow has been the centre of manufacturing betel and chewing tobacco, known as zarda and surti also, which is relished all over the country. The old habit of smoking water pipes or hukka is giving place to the more convenient smoking of cigarettes and cigars. However, the people can still be seen enjoying the luxury of smoking the hukka which was once the symbol of old culture and an inalienable part of all social gatherings.

Attar and Perfumes

The Indian Muslims have always had a taste for the perfumes which has also been encouraged by the rules of Shari‘ah and the practice of the holy Prophet. The development of perfumes industry owes much to the efforts of Indian Muslims who invented numerous varieties of attar, which are renowned all over the world.n

   (Concluded)